Written by: Ryan Krishna
Exploring Thomas J. Mazanec’s Poet Monks: The Invention of Buddhist Poetry in Late Medieval China provides us with an in-depth analysis of the changes that were beginning to take form in late medieval China. Buddhist monks, who were typically seen as separate from the literary world, began writing poetry as a sustained cultural practice. These monks were referred to as “poet-monks” (詩僧, shiseng), and over the next two centuries they became a distinct, culturally significant, literary identity.
The term poet-monk first appeared in the 770s in Jiangnan, a region where Buddhist institutions overlapped with pre-existing literary networks. Early figures like Lingyi and Jiaoran solidified the term. Lingyi was known for his landscape poems, paired with intense monastic discipline. He was praised by literary critic Dugu Ji as someone who used poetry not just for self-expression, but to spread Buddhist teachings and guide others toward the Dharma*. Lingyi’s poetry, filled with powerful imagery of pine groves, moonlit valleys, and windy bamboo forests, ensured his place among the most refined writers of this time period.
However, there were limits. Lingyi and other early poet-monks were framed as living “outside the lines” (Mazanec 51). Though their writing was admirable, their poetry was not to be integrated into the conventional Confucian literary society.
Jiaoran, more prolific and widely connected, worked closely with major literati like Yan Zhenqing, and wrote in a style that bridged Buddhist insight with literary creativity. But even Jiaoran had to navigate how his Buddhist identity would shape the reception of his poetry. Sometimes, his poems would read as spiritual reflections, and other times, they would echo the standards of classical verse. Jiaoran’s poetry further complicated the divide between Buddhist practice and literary art.
By the early ninth century, poet-monks began appearing far beyond their origins in Jiangnan. In the Tang capital of Chang’an, monks like Wuben (later known as Jia Dao) began specializing in a form of poetry known as kuyin, meaning “bitter intoning” or “painstaking composition” (Mazanec 83). Though Jia Dao eventually left the monastic life, his literary works helped legitimize the poet-monk as a serious literary figure.
Meanwhile, monks like Guangxuan and Qiji fully embraced the identity of the poet-monk. Living at court and exchanging poems with elite poets and novelists, like Bai Juyi and Yuan Zhen, these monks shaped the very definition of Chinese literature. Qiji argued that Buddhist insight into reality could enhance poetic form, suggesting that it was a spiritual practice itself to write verse.
By the late Tang dynasty, poet-monks were a recognized part of poetic literary circles. Even during the suppression of Buddhism in the 840s, the popularity and prestige of poet-monks remained apparent, and in fact grew. As emperors brought poet-monks into court rituals, regional rulers in places like Mount Lu and Mount Heng offered them new homes—protecting cultural values by serving as their patrons.
Through these developments, the idea of the poet-monk was solidified in time and culture. The combination of Buddhist devotion and literary tradition profoundly influenced the works that were produced; poems stemmed from meditative attention, spiritual ambition, and awareness of literary customs. Mazanec argues that in opposing Confucian literary ideals, “a space opened up for relatively minor or marginalized figures—such as poet-monks—to grow and attempt to reshape literature in their own image” (Mazanec 33).
*The Dharma refers to the teachings of the Buddha such as the true nature of reality, the path to enlightenment, universal truth, ethical principles, and the natural order of the universe
Cover Image: Wang Zhenpeng’s The Daming Palace, depicting the Tang dynasty imperial palace
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